Data Structures by Seymour Lipschutz: A Schaum's Outline Series Book for Beginners and Experts
Data Structure By Seymour Lipschutz: A Comprehensive Guide
Data structures are one of the most fundamental concepts in computer science. They are the building blocks of any software program, and they determine how data is stored, organized, accessed, and manipulated. In this article, we will explore what data structures are, why they are important, what are the different types of data structures, and how to use them effectively. We will also learn about some of the most popular algorithms and techniques for working with data structures, and how to measure their performance and complexity. This article is based on the book "Data Structure By Seymour Lipschutz", which is a classic reference for anyone who wants to master this topic.
Data Structure By Seymour Lipschutz
What is a data structure?
A data structure is a way of organizing and storing data in a computer memory or disk, so that it can be accessed and modified efficiently. A data structure can be seen as a collection of data elements that have some logical relationship or structure among them. For example, an array is a data structure that stores a sequence of elements of the same type in a contiguous memory location. A linked list is a data structure that stores a sequence of elements of any type in non-contiguous memory locations, linked by pointers. A stack is a data structure that stores elements in a last-in first-out (LIFO) order. A queue is a data structure that stores elements in a first-in first-out (FIFO) order.
Why are data structures important?
Data structures are important because they affect the performance, readability, and maintainability of any software program. Different data structures have different advantages and disadvantages for different operations and scenarios. For example, an array allows fast random access to any element by its index, but it has a fixed size and requires shifting elements when inserting or deleting. A linked list allows dynamic resizing and easy insertion and deletion at any position, but it requires extra space for pointers and does not support random access. A stack allows fast insertion and deletion at one end (the top), but it does not allow access to other elements. A queue allows fast insertion at one end (the rear) and fast deletion at the other end (the front), but it does not allow access to other elements.
Choosing the right data structure for a given problem can make a significant difference in the efficiency and simplicity of the solution. For example, if we want to implement a text editor that supports undo and redo operations, we can use a stack to store the changes made by the user. If we want to implement a web browser that supports back and forward navigation, we can use two stacks to store the visited pages. If we want to implement a printer spooler that prints documents in the order they are received, we can use a queue to store the documents.
What are the types of data structures?
Data structures can be classified into two main categories: linear and non-linear. Linear data structures are those in which the data elements are arranged in a linear or sequential order, such as arrays, linked lists, stacks, and queues. Non-linear data structures are those in which the data elements are arranged in a hierarchical or networked order, such as trees, graphs, and hash tables.
Linear Data Structures
Arrays
An array is a data structure that stores a fixed number of elements of the same type in a contiguous memory location. Each element in an array can be accessed by its index, which is a non-negative integer that represents its position in the array. The index of the first element is 0, the index of the second element is 1, and so on. The index of the last element is n-1, where n is the size of the array. For example, if we have an array of 5 integers named A, we can access the third element by A[2], which has the value 7.
Index 0 1 2 3 4 --- --- --- --- --- --- Value 3 5 7 9 11 Some of the common operations on arrays are:
Creating an array: We need to specify the type and size of the array, and allocate enough memory for it.
Accessing an element: We need to specify the index of the element, and return its value.
Updating an element: We need to specify the index and the new value of the element, and assign it to that position.
Inserting an element: We need to specify the index and the value of the new element, and shift the elements after that index to the right by one position.
Deleting an element: We need to specify the index of the element to be deleted, and shift the elements after that index to the left by one position.
Searching an element: We need to compare the value of the element with each element in the array until we find a match or reach the end of the array.
Sorting an array: We need to arrange the elements in the array in a certain order, such as ascending or descending, using some algorithm or technique.
Linked Lists
A linked list is a data structure that stores a variable number of elements of any type in non-contiguous memory locations, linked by pointers. Each element in a linked list is called a node, which has two fields: data and next. The data field stores the value of the node, and the next field stores the address of the next node in the list. The first node in the list is called the head, and the last node in the list is called the tail. The tail node has a null pointer as its next field. For example, if we have a linked list of 5 integers named L, we can access the third node by L->next->next, which has the value 7.
Node Data Next --- --- --- Head 3 Address of node 2 Node 2 5 Address of node 3 Node 3 7 Address of node 4 Node 4 9 Address of node 5 Tail 11 Null Some of the common operations on linked lists are:
Creating a linked list: We need to create a new node for each element, and link them by their next fields.
Accessing a node: We need to traverse the list from the head until we reach the desired node or reach the end of the list.
Updating a node: We need to access the node and change its data field.
Inserting a node: We need to create a new node for the new element, and link it to its previous and next nodes.
Deleting a node: We need to access the node and unlink it from its previous and next nodes.
Searching a node: We need to compare the value of the node with each node in the list until we find a match or reach the end of the list.
Sorting a linked list: We need to rearrange the nodes in the list in a certain order, such as ascending or descending, using some algorithm or technique.
Stacks
A stack is a data structure that stores elements in a last-in first-out (LIFO) order. It means that the last element added to the stack is the first one removed from it. A stack can be seen as a pile of plates, where we can only add or remove plates from the top of the pile. A stack has two main operations: push and pop. Push adds an element to the top of the stack, and pop removes an element from the top of Queues
A queue is a data structure that stores elements in a first-in first-out (FIFO) order. It means that the first element added to the queue is the first one removed from it. A queue can be seen as a line of people waiting for a service, where we can only add people at the end of the line (the rear) and remove people from the front of the line (the front). A queue has two main operations: enqueue and dequeue. Enqueue adds an element to the rear of the queue, and dequeue removes an element from the front of the queue. A queue also has two auxiliary operations: peek and isEmpty. Peek returns the element at the front of the queue without removing it, and isEmpty returns true if the queue is empty and false otherwise.
Node Data Next --- --- --- Front 3 Address of node 2 Node 2 5 Address of node 3 Node 3 7 Address of node 4 Node 4 9 Address of node 5 Rear 11 Null Some of the common operations on queues are:
Creating a queue: We need to create a new node for each element, and link them by their next fields.
Accessing an element: We need to use the peek operation to return the element at the front of the queue.
Updating an element: We need to dequeue the element from the front of the queue, change its data field, and enqueue it to the rear of the queue.
Inserting an element: We need to create a new node for the new element, and link it to the rear of the queue.
Deleting an element: We need to unlink the node from the front of the queue and return its data field.
Searching an element: We need to compare the value of the element with each node in the queue until we find a match or reach the end of the queue.
Sorting a queue: We need to use another data structure, such as a stack or another queue, to temporarily store and rearrange the elements in the queue in a certain order, such as ascending or descending.
Non-Linear Data Structures
Trees
A tree is a data structure that stores elements in a hierarchical order, where each element is called a node, and each node has a parent-child relationship with other nodes. A tree can be seen as a family tree, where each node represents a person, and each person has a parent and zero or more children. A tree has one special node called the root, which has no parent and is at the top of the hierarchy. A node that has no children is called a leaf, and a node that has one or more children is called an internal node. A path is a sequence of nodes that are connected by edges, which represent the parent-child relationship. The length of a path is the number of edges in it. The depth of a node is the length of the path from the root to that node. The height of a tree is the maximum depth of any node in it.
A simple example of a tree is shown below:
1 (root) / \ 2 3 (internal nodes) / \ \ 4 5 6 (leaf nodes)
Some of the common operations on trees are:
Creating a tree: We need to create a new node for each element, and link them by their parent and child fields.
Accessing a node: We need to traverse the tree from the root until we reach the desired node or reach a leaf node.
Updating a node: We need to access the node and change its data field.
Inserting a node: We need to create a new node for the new element, and link it to its parent and child nodes.
Deleting a node: We need to access the node and unlink it from its parent and child nodes.
Searching a node: We need to compare the value of the node with each node in the tree until we find a match or reach a leaf node.
Traversing a tree: We need to visit each node in the tree in a certain order, such as pre-order, in-order, or post-order.
Graphs
A graph is a data structure that stores elements in a networked order, where each element is called a vertex, and each vertex has a neighbor relationship with other vertices. A graph can be seen as a map of cities, where each vertex represents a city, and each neighbor relationship represents a road between two cities. A graph has two main components: a set of vertices and a set of edges. An edge is a pair of vertices that are connected by a neighbor relationship. An edge can have a weight, which represents the cost or distance of the connection. A graph can be directed or undirected. A directed graph has edges that have a direction, which means that the neighbor relationship is not symmetric. An undirected graph has edges that have no direction, which means that the neighbor relationship is symmetric.
A simple example of an undirected graph is shown below:
1 -- 2 / \ 3 4 \ / 5 -- 6
Some of the common operations on graphs are:
Creating a graph: We need to create a new vertex for each element, and link them by their edge fields.
Accessing a vertex: We need to traverse the graph from any vertex until we reach the desired vertex or reach a dead end.
Updating a vertex: We need to access the vertex and change its data field.
Inserting a vertex: We need to create a new vertex for the new element, and link it to its neighbor vertices.
Deleting a vertex: We need to access the vertex and unlink it from its neighbor vertices.
Searching a vertex: We need to compare the value of the vertex with each vertex in the graph until we find a match or reach a dead end.
Traversing a graph: We need to visit each vertex in the graph in a certain order, such as breadth-first or depth-first.
Hash Tables
A hash table is a data structure that stores elements in an associative order, where each element has a key and a value. A hash table can be seen as a dictionary, where each key represents a word, and each value represents its meaning. A hash table has two main components: an array of buckets and a hash function. A bucket is a slot in the array that can store one or more elements. A hash function is a mathematical function that maps any key to an index in the array. The index determines which bucket the element belongs to. For example, if we have an array of 10 buckets and a hash function that returns the remainder of dividing the key by 10, we can store an element with key 35 in bucket 5.
Index Bucket --- --- 0 Empty 1 Empty 2 Empty 3 Empty 4 Empty 5 (35, "apple") 6 Empty 7 Empty 8 Empty 9 Empty Some of the common operations on hash tables are:
Creating a hash table: We need to specify the size of the array and the hash function, and allocate enough memory for it.
Accessing an element: We need to compute the hash value of the key, and return the value of the element in that bucket.
Updating an element: We need to compute the hash value of the key, and change the value of the element in that bucket.
Inserting an element: We need to compute the hash value of the key, and store the element in that bucket.
Deleting an element: We need to compute the hash value of the key, and remove the element from that bucket.
Searching an element: We need to compute the hash value of the key, and compare the key with the element in that bucket until we find a match or reach the end of the bucket.
Handling collisions: We need to use some technique, such as chaining or linear probing, to resolve the situation when two or more elements have the same hash value and map to the same bucket.
Abstract Data Types
with the data and how they are expected to behave, without revealing how they are actually implemented. An ADT can be implemented using different data structures, such as arrays, linked lists, trees, graphs, or hash tables. For example, a stack is an ADT that defines a collection of elements that can be accessed and modified only at one end (the top), using the push and pop operations. A stack can be implemented using an array or a linked list.
Some of the common ADTs are:
Stacks and Queues as ADTs
We have already seen stacks and queues as data structures that store elements in a LIFO and FIFO order, respectively. However, we can also view them as ADTs that define a collection of elements that can be accessed and modified only at one or both ends, using the push and pop or enqueue and dequeue operations, respectively. A stack or a queue can be implemented using different data structures, such as arrays or linked lists.
Lists and Sequences as ADTs
A list is an ADT that defines a collection of elements that can be accessed and modified at any position, using the insert, delete, get, and set operations. A list can be implemented using different data structures, such as arrays or linked lists.
A sequence is an ADT that extends a list by adding the concept of rank or order to the elements. A sequence defines a collection of elements that can be accessed and modified by their rank or position in the sequence, using the insertAtRank, deleteAtRank, elementAtRank, and replaceAtRank operations. A sequence can be implemented using different data structures, such as arrays or linked lists.
Maps and Dictionaries as ADTs
A map is an ADT that defines a collection of key-value pairs that can be accessed and modified by their keys, using the put, get, remove, and containsKey operations. A map can be implemented using different data structures, such as arrays or hash tables.
A dictionary is an ADT that extends a map by allowing multiple values for the same key. A dictionary defines a collection of key-value pairs that can be accessed and modified by their keys, using the put, getAll, remove, removeAll, and containsKey operations. A dictionary can be implemented using different data structures, such as arrays or hash tables.
Algorithms and Complexity
What is an algorithm?
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or set of rules for solving a problem or performing a task. An algorithm can be seen as a recipe for cooking a dish, where we have a list of ingredients (input) and a set of instructions (output) to follow. An algorithm can be expressed in different ways, such as natural language, pseudocode, flowchart, or programming language.
Some examples of algorithms are:
An algorithm for finding the maximum element in an array:
1. Set max to the first element of the array. 2. For each element in the array from the second to the last: a. If the element is greater than max: i. Set max to the element. 3. Return max.
An algorithm for reversing a string:
1. Set reversed to an empty string. 2. For each character in the string from the last to the first: a. Append the character to reversed. 3. Return reversed.
An algorithm for sorting an array using bubble sort:
1. Set swapped to true. 2. While swapped is true: a. Set swapped to false. b. For each element in the array from the first to the second last: i. If the element is greater than its next element: 1. Swap the element with its next element. 2. Set swapped to true. 3. Return the array.
How to measure the efficiency of an algorithm?
The efficiency of an algorithm is a measure of how well it performs in terms of time and space complexity. Time complexity is a measure of how long it takes for an algorithm to run given an input size. Space complexity is a measure of how much memory or storage space it requires given an input size.
The time and space complexity of an algorithm can vary depending on different factors, such as the input size, the input distribution, the hardware and software environment, and the implementation details. However, we can use a notation called the big O notation to express the worst-case or upper bound of the time and space complexity of an algorithm. The big O notation uses a function that describes the growth rate of the time or space complexity as the input size increases. For example, O(n) means that the time or space complexity is proportional to the input size n, O(n^2) means that the time or space complexity is proportional to the square of the input size n, and O(1) means that the time or space complexity is constant regardless of the input size.
Some examples of the big O notation are:
The ti